ART OF SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY IS ART OF SCIENCE CHEMISTRY FACT INSIDE
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Jumat, 13 Agustus 2010
Selasa, 10 Agustus 2010
Minggu, 08 Agustus 2010
CARBON AND METHANE
The potential map of methane shows that neither carbon nor hydrogen carries much of a charge: There are neither red areas, representing partially negatively charged atoms, nor blue areas, representing partially positively charged atoms. The absence of partially charged atoms can be explained by the similar electronegativities of carbon and hydrogen, which cause carbon and hydrogen to share their bonding electrons relatively equally. Methane is a nonpolar molecule.
You may be surprised to learn that carbon forms four covalent bonds since you know that carbon has only two unpaired electrons in its ground-state electronic configuration. But if carbon were to form only two covalent bonds, it would not complete its octet. Now we need to come up with an explanation that accounts for carbon’s forming four covalent bonds. If one of the electrons in the 2s orbital were promoted into the empty 2p atomic orbital, the new electronic configuration would have four unpaired electrons; thus, four covalent bonds could be formed.
Because a p orbital is higher in energy than an s orbital, promotion of an electron from an s orbital to a p orbital requires energy. The amount of energy required is 96 kcal/mol. The formation of four C-H bonds releases 402 kcal/mol of energy because the bond dissociation energy of a single C-H bond is 105 kcal/mol If the electron were not promoted, carbon could form only two covalent bonds, which would release only 201 kcal/mol So, by spending 96 kcal/mol (or 402 Kj/mol) to promote an electron, an extra (or 879 kJ/mol) is released. In other words, promotion is energetically advantageous.
Keep a marshmallow warm with a fire
PENICILLIN
Jumat, 06 Agustus 2010
Kamis, 05 Agustus 2010
DALMATIAN AND CHEMISTRY
Benzo[a]pyrene Carcinogenic
SURVIVAL COMPOUNDS
KEKULE'S DREAM
VON BAEYER AND BARBITURIC ACID
DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE
Rabu, 04 Agustus 2010
WATER IN CHEMISTRY
WATER IS AN IDEAL BIOLOGIC SOLVENT Water Molecules Form Dipoles
A water molecule is an irregular, slightly skewed tetrahedron with oxygen at its center (Figure 2–1). The two hydrogens and the unshared electrons of the remaining two sp3 hybridized orbitals occupy the corners of the tetrahedron. The 105-degree angle between the hydrogens differs slightly from the ideal tetrahedral angle, 109.5 degrees. Ammonia is also tetrahedral, with a 107-degree angle between its hydrogens. Water is a dipole, a molecule with electrical charge distributed asymmetrically about its structure. The strongly electronegative oxygen atom pulls electrons away from the hydrogen nuclei, leaving them with a partial positive charge, while its two unshared electron pairs constitute a region
of local negative charge. Water, a strong dipole, has a high dielectric constant. As described quantitatively by Coulomb’s law, the strength of interaction F between oppositely charged particles is inversely proportionate to the dielectric constant ε of the surrounding medium. The dielectric constant for a vacuum is unity; for hexane it is 1.9; for ethanol it is 24.3; and for water it is 78.5. Water therefore greatly decreases the force of attraction between charged and polar species relative to water-free environments with lower dielectric constants. Its strong dipole and high dielectric constant enable water to dissolve large quantities of charged compounds such as salts.
Water Molecules Form Hydrogen Bonds
An unshielded hydrogen nucleus covalently bound to an electron-withdrawing oxygen or nitrogen atom can interact with an unshared electron pair on another oxygen or nitrogen atom to form a hydrogen bond. Since water molecules contain both of these features, hydrogen bonding favors the self association of water molecules into ordered arrays (Figure 2–2). Hydrogen bonding profoundly influences the physical properties of water and accounts for its exceptionally high viscosity, surface tension, and boiling point. On average, each molecule in liquid water associates through hydrogen bonds with 3.5 others. These bonds are both relatively weak and transient, with a half-life of about one microsecond. Rupture of a hydrogen bond in liquid water requires only about 4.5 kcal/mol, less than 5% of the energy required to rupture a covalent OH bond. Hydrogen bonding enables water to dissolve many organic biomolecules that contain functional groups which can participate in hydrogen bonding. The oxygen atoms of aldehydes, ketones, and amides provide pairs of electrons that can serve as hydrogen acceptors. Alcohols and amines can serve both as hydrogen acceptors and as donors of unshielded hydrogen atoms for formation of hydrogen bonds.
INTERACTION WITH WATER INFLUENCES THE STRUCTURE OF BIOMOLECULES
Covalent & Noncovalent Bonds Stabilize Biologic Molecules
The covalent bond is the strongest force that holds molecules together (Table 2–1). Noncovalent forces, while of lesser magnitude, make significant contributions to the structure, stability, and functional competence of macromolecules in living cells. These forces, which can be either attractive or repulsive, involve interactions both within the biomolecule and between it and the water that forms the principal component of the surrounding environment.
Biomolecules Fold to Position Polar & Charged Groups on Their Surfaces Most biomolecules are amphipathic; that is, they possess regions rich in charged or polar functional groups as well as regions with hydrophobic character. Proteins tend to fold with the R-groups of amino acids with hydrophobic side chains in the interior. Amino acids with charged or polar amino acid side chains (eg, arginine, glutamate, serine) generally are present on the surface in contact with water. A similar pattern prevails in a phospholipid bilayer, where the charged head groups of
phosphatidyl serine or phosphatidyl ethanolamine contact water while their hydrophobic fatty acyl side chains cluster together, excluding water. This pattern maximizes the opportunities for the formation of energetically favorable charge-dipole, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding interactions between polar groups on the biomolecule and water. It also minimizes energetically unfavorable contact between water and hydrophobic groups.
Selasa, 03 Agustus 2010
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND YOU
You are already a highly skilled organic chemist. As you read these words, your eyes are using an organic compound (retinal) to convert visible light into nerve impulses. When you picked up this book, your muscles were doing chemical reactions on sugars to give you the energy you needed. As you understand, gaps between your brain cells are being bridged by simple organic molecules (neuro transmitter amines) so that nerve impulses can be passed around your brain. And you did all that without consciously thinking about it. You do not yet understand these processes in your mind as well as you can carry them out in your brain and body. You are not alone there. No organic chemist, however brilliant, understands the detailed chemical working of the human mind or body very well.
Organic chemistry began as a tentative attempt to understand the chemistry of life. It has grown into the confident basis of vast multinational industries that feed, clothe, and cure millions of people without their even being aware of the role of chemistry in their lives. Chemists cooperate with physicists and mathematicians to understand how molecules behave and with biologists to understand how molecules determine life processes. The development of these ideas is already a revelation at the beginning of the twenty-first century, but is far from complete. We aim not to give you the measurements of the skeleton of a dead science but to equip you to understand the conflicting demands of an adolescent one.
Like all sciences, chemistry has a unique place in our pattern of understanding of the universe. It is the science of molecules. But organic chemistry is something more. It literally creates itself as it grows. Of course we need to study the molecules of nature both because they are interesting in their own right and because their functions are important to our lives. Organic chemistry often studies life by making new molecules that give information not available from the molecules actually present in living things.
This creation of new molecules has given us new materials such as plastics, new dyes to colour our clothes, new perfumes to wear, new drugs to cure diseases. Some people think that these activities are unnatural and their products dangerous or unwholesome. But these new molecules are built by humans from other molecules found on earth using the skills inherent in our natural brains. Birds build nests; man makes houses. Which is unnatural? To the organic chemist this is a meaningless distinction. There are toxic compounds and nutritious ones, stable compounds and reactive ones—but there is only one type of chemistry: it goes on both inside our brains and bodies and also in our flasks and reactors, born from the ideas in our minds and the skill in our hands. We are not going to set ourselves up as moral judges in any way. We believe it is right to try and understand the world about us as best we can and to use that understanding creatively.